Psychology: Personality

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Personality


Concept and Definition of Personality

The term 'personality' is derived from the Latin word ‘Persona’ that means a theatrical mask used by actors in Greek drama. This literal term is very similar with lay people's concept of personality. The term is more concerned with the physical and social attractiveness. The reality is that personality is biological and social byproduct. It does not only mean physical feature, appearance or attractiveness. It is rather an interaction of physical and psychological characteristics, inner and outer-self. It refers to the totality of a man.

Definition of Personality

There is not a single acceptable definition of personality. There is division among the psychologists about the definition of personality. The disagreement among
the psychologists in explaining the concept of personality is known as ‘person-situation’ controversy. Some psychologists (especially behaviorists) emphasizes that situation is the primary source of behavior while others emphasizes that person is the primary source of behavior. Personality is defined from these two different traditions. Behaviorists or S-R psychologists (who advocate 'situation center' perspective) attempt to define personality in term of adjustment to individual’s environment. These psychologists regard that all behaviors are determined by situational constraints. Watson, for example, defined personality as ‘sum of activities that can be discovered by actual observation of behavior over a long enough time to give reliable information. In other words, personality is but the end product of our habit systems’ (1930). Those who emphasize 'person-center' approach state that personality is the sum total of the biological innate dispositions, impulses, tendencies, appetites and instincts of the individual and the dispositions and tendencies acquired by experience. Some of these psychologists also define states personality in terms of integration, thus to them personality is the most characteristic integration of an individual’s structures, modes of behavior, interests, attitudes, capacities, abilities and aptitudes. Sigmund Freud is one of the psychologists that advocate 'person-center' approach in the study of personality.

It is apparent from the above paragraph that personality is explained in different ways. The 'person-situation' controversy can be regarded as the extreme view on personality. Since 1960, the personality is defined in a more balanced view but the strong influence of these two traditions is still apparent.

“Personality is the sum total to ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.”

- S.P. Robbins

“Personality is the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another.”

– Moorhead and Griffin.

“Personality is a stable set of personal characteristics and tendencies that determine the commonalities and differences in people's thoughts, beings, and actions.”

– Arnold and Feldman

In the definition of Arnold and Feldman there are several aspects that we need to look at closely.

First, personality refers to a relatively stable set of characteristics and tendencies of a person.

Second, it explains both commonalities and differences in the behavior of people.

Third, it draws attention to the factors within people that cause them to behave as they do.

“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.”

G. W. All Port, 1937

Let us examine the key terms of Allport’s definition.

Dynamic organization: Personality is not static. It is not merely additions of traits and qualities. It is an active organization which is constantly developing and changing; active organization of different traits and qualities. The teen organization refers to physical and mental traits combined into one. Physical traits refer general physique, color, of the eyes, hair, and shape of the nose. Psychological traits refer to interest, attitude, motive, sociability, honesty etc.

Psychophysical System: The term psychophysical states that personality is neither exclusively mental nor exclusively physical. The physical body influences the mind, the mind influences the physical body, and personality organization includes the operation of both body and mind. This process determines behavior and thought in such a way as to shape these activities into a pattern characteristic of a particular individual.

System: It refers to traits or groups of traits. Traits mean characteristics or distinct mode of behavior of a more or less permanent nature arising from the individual’s native endowment as modified by his experience.

Determine: The group of traits which constitute personality are the determining tendencies and when aroused by suitable stimuli provide these adjectives and expressive acts by which the personality comes to be known.

Unique: Every person and so also his personality, his adjustment to the environment to the society; is unique in every respect.

Adjustment to the Environment: It is the personality of a person which adapts itself to changing situations and circumstances. Adjustment and adaptation becomes a mode of survival. Adjustment also includes maladjustment and environment includes both behavioral as well as geographical environment.

In general, personality can be thought as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person can exhibits.

Nature of Personality (Its Different Aspects)

• It is an aggregate whole of an individual’s feature. A whole person concept.

• It can be developed. The development status from womb and does not stop till the person rests on tomb.

• Every person has it, but in different style. It indicates the individual differences.

• It is goal directed.

• Personality influences the behavior of an individual.

• It is partly in born and partly acquired or developed.

• It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a parson exhibits.

Determinants of Personality

What determines personality? Of all the complexities and unanswered questions in the study of human behavior, this question may be the most difficult. The problem lies in the fact that the cognitive and psychological processes plus many other variables all contribute to personality

In other words, personality is the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another. A longstanding debate among psychologists- often described in terms of a "nature versus nurture" is the extent to which personality attributes are inherited from our parents (the "nature" argument) or shaped by our environment (the "nurture" argument). In reality, both biological and environmental factors play important role determining our personalities.

However, for case of study and analysis they can be grouped under two broad headings. They are: a) The Nature or Biological factors, b) The Nurture or Environmental & situational factors

note: Cultural and family and social factors, under broad category even situational factors can be included in it.

Biological Factors (Determinants)

The study of the biological contribution to personality can be studied under three sub-heads viz; the heredity, the brain and the physical features.

1. Heredity

Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at the time of conception. At conception, each parent normally contributes twenty three chromosomes containing thousands of genes which seem to be the transmitters of traits in certain combination. Certain characteristics primarily physical in nature are inherited from ones parents. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, temperament, sex, muscle composition and biological rhythms are the example of heredity characteristics that are generally influenced by our parents.

Through research on animals, it has been clearly shown that both physical and psychological characteristics can be transmitted through heredity. However, in case of humans, the evidence is much less conclusive.'

The notion of heredity characteristics as contributing towards personality structure is deeply gained in our minds. Sayings such as "like father, like son", when referring to characteristics has some validity. Heredity is generally more important in determining a person's temperament than values and ideas.

2. Brain

Another biological factor that influences personality is the role of brain of an individual. Though some promising inroads are made by researchers, the psychologists are unable to prove empirically the contribution of human brain in influencing personality.

3. Physical Features

Physical stature of an individual is perhaps the most outstanding factor that contributes to our personality. Whether the person is handsome or highly, short or tall, fat or thin, black or whitish will naturally influence the person's effect on others. This, in turn, will affect the self concept.

Rate of maturity also affects personality in many ways. A rapidly maturing girl or boy will be exposed to different physical and social situations and activities than will a slowly maturing boy or girl.

4. Other Biological factors

Endocrine glands and personality (Source: Guilford)

The endocrine glands are ductless glands that pour secretions directly into the blood stream, which carries them throughout the body. Low or excessive flow of hormones brings changes in the body and its structure, mental conditions. It influences the personality and behavior.

Thyroid gland:

The thyroid gland secretes the hormone known as thyroxin. The general purpose of this hormone is to regulate bodily metabolism, that is, the use of food materials in growth and general activity. When the thyroid is underactive, we speak of a hypothyroid condition. Various degrees of hypothyrodism may occur. The result is usually a mental dullness with slowness of thinking, memory, and movement, low initiative, indecision, depression, feelings of fatigue with little zest for activity of any kind, and with occasional outbursts of anger when the sluggish person fails to keep up with his faster-moving environment. There is a poor appetite, an inclination to sleep, and a gain in weight.

With an overactive thyroid, known as hyperthyroidism, there is an overactive individual. He rarely stops to rest, sleeps little, has a good appetite, high blood pressure, and he loses weights. In extreme hyperthyrodism he becomes nervous, jittery, and worried.

The hypothyroid condition can now be relieved by taking doses of thyroid extract under the direction of a physician, although this will not necessarily remove all symptoms. It is well to remember that some traits listed for the hypothyroid individual may have other causes than deficient thyroid secretion. The hyperthyroid condition is relieved only by a change in living conditions.

Parathyroid glands:

It contains four small glands under thyroid glands. The chief function is to regulate calcium metabolism. The excitability of the nervous system is very directly dependent upon the amount of calcium in the blood. When there is a deficiency of calcium, marked changes in behavior are likely to occur. The hypoactive parathyroid leads to an irritable, quick-reacting person, distractible and nervous, with twitching, fidgeting, and tenseness, sensitiveness to criticism and opposition, and negativism. The hyperactive parathyroid have less dramatic effect, but they are opposite in kind—a general lassitude, loss of muscular tone, and lack of interest.

Pituitary gland

Also called master glands. The pituitary gland has three parts, of which the anterior and the posterior lobes are most often mentioned. Because of its location, its secretions have very prompt access to the brain and undoubtedly affect it directly in many ways. Only one or two definite chemical secretions have been isolated as coming from the pituitary gland, but there are probably a large number of different hormones produced there. With such a number, each with its own contributions to make to human welfare, it is difficult to say as yet what behavior traits are determined by the pituitary gland. In a general way, the effects of the anterior and posterior parts are known.

The anterior part regulates the growth of bones and muscles and stimulates the growth of sexual functions. A person with an underactive anterior pituitary may become a dwarf, with retarded sexual development. When thre is an overactive anterior pituitary gland during childhood, giantism may be anticipated. If it becomes overactive after maturity, the bones of head and face grow out of proportion, producing a distorted continence and a state known as acromegaly. Mentally, the hyperactive anterior pituitary leads to an aggressive, self-controlled individual with poise. The hypoactive gland leads to a sluggish, lazy person who is easily discouraged.

The effect of a disordered posterior pituitary are less well known. In general, this portion acts as a stimulant to the smooth muscles, maintaining their healthy tone. When underactive, obesity is often a result. Mental consequences are submissiveness in the opposite direction.

The adrenal gland

Also called supradrenal is situated just above the kidney. It has two parts, the cortex and the medulla, with their respective secretions, cortin and adrenalin or epinephrin. An underactive adrenal cortex is said to lead to such symptoms as general weakness, lack of sex interest, poor judgment, irritability, poor cooperation, poor memory, depression, and insomnia. An overactive condition is said to include virility, composure, alertness, and a feeling of general well being.

The adrenal medulla is known as the “emergency gland” because of its role in emotional behavior. Some rather characteristic differences in people, that are said to go with this gland and its efficiency, can be cited. An underactive adrenal medulla is likely to show up in the form of dejected moods and a habitual lack of effectiveness in meeting emergencies. With an overactive adrenal medulla, individuals are inclined to be generally more “keyed up,” active, dynamic, optimistic, and to possess more initiative, but they are also more inclined to excited moods.

The Gonads

The gonads are the sex glands, testes in the male and ovaries in the female. In addition to the production of germ cells, these organs serve as endocrine glands, secreting perhaps three different hormones. During childhood they remain more or less in a latent condition. At puberty, one of their functions is to bring about development of the masculine physical traits in males, and the feminine traits in females. Certain mental characteristics go along with this development, including normal interest in the opposite sex. It should be recognized, however, that no individual is a complex male in every respect, and no one is a complete female in every respect, either physically or mentally. This is partly because it takes more than one hormone to bring about male or female characteristics. Many differences between the sexes in behavior traits can undoubtedly be attributed to glandular disposition. But many differences are to be attributed also to cultural forces that treat developing boys and girls differently because of their sex membership.

Interaction of the glands: One gland cannot be overactive or underactive without having effects upon other glands. Some glands inhibit one another, and others stimulate one another. Again, when some glands fail, others become overactive as if to compensate for the failure. This greatly complicates the glandular picture and makes a clear-cut correlation between glandular make-up and behavior traits almost impossible. It is the glandular balance rather than specific conditions of single glands that is significant for behavior. Disturbances of glandular function very frequently enter into cases of misbehavior. In a study among 250 prison inmates it was found that lack of glandular balance was two or three times a prevalent as among normal individuals.



Other biological conditions affecting personality include:

(consult your book for these factors: SSubba)

• Physique (body structure, temperament – Sheldon’s classification)

• Nervous system: Structure and function of the nervous system influences the personality of the person.

• Sex. Intelligence etc.

Cultural Factors

Environmental Conditions affecting personality

A. Social and cultural determinants of personality (For detail read your book – SSubba)

Family: Family type (single or joint family), child rearing (permissiveness-strictness, independence-obedience, security, solution of behavioral problem of the child, use of reward and punishment, etc. influences the personality development of the child. The toilet training, feeding, acceptance and rejection influence self development, ego-strength, creativity of the child.

Parental influence: Affection of parents, relationship between father and mother, attitude of family members toward others and the child. Absence of parents, absence of mother, absence of father, punishing and aggressive parents, authoritarian or permissive personality of the parents influence the child. Child partly internalizes the personality of the parents.

Ordinal position and personality: the birth order of the child in the family. The sex of the other siblings and parents attitude on the sex of the children.

School: (Teacher, friends, peer and school environment). The democratic or authoritarian environment of the classroom. The group attitude, affiliation, cooperation, competition among the students, the personality of the teachers etc. influence the personality development of the child.

Social environment

B. Cultural determinants

Culture is that complex whole which includes all the habits acquired by man as a member of society. It also refers to the distinct way of life of a group and their complete design for living. Culture is the source of learning to adjust in otherwise vague, ambiguous, and strange world.

Culture is defined in many ways. Commonly, it is understood as “the totality of the customs, arts, science, and religious and political behavior taken as an integrated whole that distinguishes one society from another (Atkinson, Berne and Woodworth, 1988:113). However, culture is not just a customary way of doing things and interacting with others and creating artifacts, it is primarily a way of perceiving and conceptualizing experience. Cultural psychology maintains that the sociocultural environment is the source of the subjective world of the human being. This subjective world is altered through the process of seizing meanings and resources, and using them (Shweder, 1991). People see, understand and describe the world according to the reality they have constructed through their interaction and interpretation of the sociocultural environment. Culture is important determinant of personality. Here, a brief points are provided on culture and personality.

Kroeber (1948) states that culture has important place in the development of personality because culture determines the nature the personality of the individual. Culture is the solution of the life’s problems. It determines what, how, and why to behave in different problematic situation.

The concept of basic personality type (of Kardiner, 1945), model personality (DuBois, 1944), and the national personality and national character is based on the culture. Culture provide a shared norm of behaviour.

The question of how the culture shape the development of personality is answered by Linton. According to him –

• The effect of childhood experience on personality is permanent.

• Culture determines the child rearing practices. Children develop their personality as they were reared.

• The similar experiences, child rearing practices, shared attitudes, belief, practice and behavioral patterns helps to develop similar type of personality pattern. As a result, the concept of model personality, national personality can be understood, described, and measured. This is because of culture.

Social Factors

The family probably has the most significant impact on early personality development of a child. But later on the impact of socialization will be high.

1. Identification Process

The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is important to the persons early develop. Usually, the parent of the same sex as the child will serve as the model for the child's development. The overall home environment created by the parents (in addition to their direct influence) is critical to personality development.

2. Socialization Process

Socialization also influences personality development process. This process starts with the initial contact between a mother and her now infant (baby). The baby gradually comes into contact with other members of the family close relatives and family friends, social work groups at work place etc. play influential roles. Organization itself also contributes much to socialization.

It is especially relevant to OB because the process is not confident early childhood; rather it takes place throughout one's life. In particular, evidence is accumulating that socialization may be one of the best explanations for why employees behave the way they do in today's organizations.

SOCIALISATION, CULTURE, AND PERSONALITY

Cultural Factors in Child Training

Culture bound and culture blind adult due to indoctrinated with the teaching of specific culture

- Cultural norms and value becomes like laws of nature - immutable and unchangeable

Cross cultural examinations of selected training practices

(Based on the study of John W. M. Whiting (anthropologist) Irvin L. Child (psychologist) 1953)

1. Difference in the concept of typical family

- family structure is shaped by social structure and on individualistic and collectivistic dimension

- Child-rearing practices differ in extended and non-extended families

- Some societies are matrilineal (matrilocal) and others patrilineal

- Societies with extended families are found to be on the average more severe in their socialisation of dependent, aggressive, and sexual behaviour. It would appear that with respect to these three systems of behaviour…the presence of the grandparents tends to make for more stern imposition of those rules.

Despite difference on family structure in different cultures, the parents (substitute parents) everywhere share the common problem or goal of changing the child into an adult.

- concerned with the universal problems of behaviour, solve similar problems to raise the child

- child (helpless) depend on others for nursing, evacuating the waste products, exploring genitals, biting, kicking at will -- must change into responsible adult obeying the rules of his society.



2. Feeding

- Women in most of the non-American [non industrialised?] societies indulge in a child's feeding behaviour

- [Exception] Marquesas Island of Polynesia take great pride in the beauty of their breast and believe that nursing diminishes their attractiveness.

- Weaning in most societies is accomplished 2 - 3 years.

- American culture accomplished weaning within the first year.



3. Bowel Training

- Tanala of Madagascar begin anal training when a child is two to three months old and expect him to be fully trained by six months - otherwise severe punishment is given.

- Majority of culture begin training in defecation habits at about two and some may delay as late as 5



4. Sex behaviour

- Children are found to be curious about their bodies and explore and find that stimulating their genitals is pleasurable

- Most societies are tolerable to masturbatory behaviour

- Alorese in the East Indies even go so far as to massage the genitals of their young in order to pacify them when they are crying.

- American middle class family is not extremely severe with regard to masturbation but less tolerant to than other cultures.

Great variation in heterosexual play

- Wapisiana of Amazon basin separate boys and girls and do not let them play together during childhood.

- Marquesans are more permissive and young people may engage in sexual intercourse as soon as they are physiologically ready, without having to transgress prohibitions to do so.

- Americans are in the middle position about their attitude.



5. Aggression

No society is free from aggressive behaivor but societies differ markedly in how much and what

kind of aggression they permit their children to express.

- See fig/Table

- Most American parents are secretly pleased by, and approve of, vigorous, assertive behaivour by their male children but they draw the line before the tendency reaches the assault level reported for the Siriono.

- Female aggressiveness is less sympathetically received.

- Reinforcement for male and female girl child differ



Conclusion

1. There is tremendous variability across cultures in what is defined as desirable or acceptable adult behaviour.

2. Great variation also exist in age at which specific demands are typically placed upon the child by care-taking adult.

3. Some innate tendencies are accepted, encouraged and others are discouraged, punished.

4. Child-rearing practices deeply affect the personlity characteristics that children develop and then manifest as adults.

Some cross-cultural validates this proposition but proving validity is yet another task. Studies only correlates not prove the causation.



Example of Nepal: Child rearing practices of Newar children of Dolkha and Bungmati (Source: Prem Kumar Khatry: Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the University of California, 1986)

I. Weaning

1. Weaning is gradual and not sudden or forced.

2. No clear-cut observable pattern of weaning was seen. Children were let to suckle as long as it was physically possible or until next child is born.

3. By the age of 1- 1 1/2 training in self feeding begins and by the age of 2 most children become independent in terms of eating solid food.

4. In small, nuclear or working class families, mother likes to see that a child feeds himself by the age of two.

5. Normal weaning period falls around the age of two and a half but breast feeding usually continues until the age of three.

6. Some of the reasons for early weaning, as reported by the lactating mothers, were as follow:

- Forthcoming pregnancy

- Decrease in the lactating capacity

- Prolonged sickness of the mother

- Growth of the child beyond normal suckling stage and his capability to depend on regular food.

7. Sleeping pattern also influences the weaning. Even 5 - 7 years old children were found to suckling whenever they got the opportunity.

8. Working mother and work during harvesting period were some reasons for early weaning. Middle class mother does not work in the field thus middle class children were weaned relatively later than lower-class children.

9. Some common methods for the weaning include:

a. Temporary separation (during the night).

b. Application of bitter materials (chilli, bitter plants, soap, etc. on the breast nipple).

c. Increased milk substitute (with diet or more milk).



Other Situational Factors

They also influence our personality. Situation exercises constraints and may provide push. In practice, an individual's personality does change depending on the situation. This is because the different demands of the different situations call for the different aspect of an individual's personality.

Sometimes, certain incidents reveal the personality of a person that was so far hidden. For example, a shy and timid person may spontaneously perform heroic actions in saving other people's lives without regard to his own safely.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

1 TRAIT THEORY OF PERSONALITY

In order to understand how personality influences individual behavior in organizations we require a method of describing the nature of an individual's personality. One method is to identify traits or characteristics of personality and attempt to measure them. Measures of personality traits can then be related to observation of individual behavior to see what influences, it any, the personality factors have on behavior.

The early work in the structure of personally revolved around attempts to identify and label enduring characteristics that describe an individual's behavior. Popular characteristics include shy, aggressiveness, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal and timid. Those characteristics, when they are exhibited in a large number of situations, are called personality traits. The more consistent the characteristic and the more frequently it occurs in diverse situations, the more important that trait is in describing the individual.'

The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of personality. The trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed broad dispositions. Trait theorists are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. According to this perspective, traits are relatively stable over time, differ among individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing whereas others are shy), and influence behavior.







There is a nearly unlimited number of potential traits that could be used to describe personality. The statistical technique of factor analysis, however, has demonstrated that particular clusters of traits reliably correlate together. Gordon Allport was an early pioneer in the study of traits, which he sometimes referred to as dispositions. There are many trait theory of personality. Below is one example of trait thoery.

Cattell's 16 Personality Factors (PF) theory of personality

A trait is either inborn or during the course of life develops and constantly gives our behavior some direction. Cattell developed a complex method in order to categorize traits. This method comes from subsidization which is the idea that many psychological entities may be subsumed beneath others. Therefore, traits are organized and positioned in a hierarchy, starting with the most general and few, to the most exact or specific and plenty. Thus, Cattell reduced the number of traits to 16 source traits in order to identify the underlying pattern in an individual.

Raymond B Cattell (1905-1998) developed his 16PF in the 1940s. Cattell's theory asserts that every person possesses a degree of each of the sixteen traits.

1. Warmth (A)

2. Reasoning (B)

3. Emotional Stability (C)

4. Dominance (E)

5. Liveliness (F)

6. Rule-consciousness (G)

7. Social Boldness (H)

8. Sensitivity (I)

9. Vigilance (L)

10. Abstractedness (M)

11. Privateness (N)

12. Apprehension/Apprehensiveness (O)

13. Openness to change (Q1)

14. Self-reliance (Q2)

15. Perfectionism (Q3)

16. Tension (Q4)



2. TYPE THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Personality type theory aims to classify people into distinct CATEGORIES. i.e. this type or that. Personality types are synonymous with "personality styles". Types refers to categories that are distinct and discontinuous. e.g. you are one or the other. This is important to understand, because it helps to distinguish a personality type approach from a personality trait approach, which takes a continuous approach.



To clearly understand the difference between types and traits, consider the example of the personality dimension of "introversion". We can view introversion as:

• A personality type approach says you are either an introvert or an extravert

• A personality trait approach says you can be anywhere on a continuum ranging from introversion to extraversion, with most people clustering in the middle, and fewer people towards the extremes

The following sections provide an overview of some of the more popular and commonly known personality type taxonomies.



Allport and Odbert (1936, cited in Funder, 1999) found over 17,000 words in the dictionary which referred to psychological differences between people, e.g., trustworthy, shy, arrogant. Typically, modern personality taxonomies have emphasized between two, three, four, and five personality types, through to identifying 16 or more subtypes.



The Four Humors - Ancient Greeks (~2000 BC - 0 AD)

Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates 400 BC and Galen, 140/150 AD classified 4 types of "humors" in people. Each type was believed to be due to an excess of one of four bodily fluids, corresponding to their character. The personalities were termed "humors".



Character Humor Fluid Corresponding Trait in the Big 5

Irritable Choleric yellow bile Agreeableness

Depressed Melancholic black bile Neuroticism

Optimistic Sanguine blood Openness to experience

Calm Phlegmatic phlegm Neuroticism



Somatotypes - William Sheldon (1940, 1942, cited in Phares, 1991) classified personality according to body type. He called this a person's somatotype. Sheldon identified three main somatotypes:





Sheldon's Somatotype Character Shape

Endomorph [viscerotonic] relaxed, sociable, tolerant, comfort-loving, peaceful plump, buxom, developed visceral structure

Mesomorph [somatotonic] active, assertive, vigorous, combative muscular

Ectomorph [cerebrotonic] quiet, fragile, restrained, non-assertive, sensitive lean, delicate, poor muscles



Sheldon measured the proportions of hundreds of juvenile delinquent boys and concluded that they

were generally mesomorphs (Ornstein, 1993).



Body types have been criticized for very weak empirical methodology and are not generally used in

psychology. The use of somatotyping (using different taxonomies) is used more often in alternative therapies and Eastern psychology and spirituality.





Psychological type theory: Extroverts vs. Introverts type theory of personality



According to Jung's theory of Psychological Types we are all different in fundamental ways. One's ability to process different information is limited by their particular type. These types are sixteen.



People can be either Extroverts or Introverts, depending on the direction of their activity; Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuitive, according to their own information pathways; Judging or Perceiving, depending on the method in which they process received information.



Extroverts are directed towards the objective world whereas Introverts are directed towards the subjective world. The most common differences between Extroverts and Introverts are shown below:



Extroverts

• are interested in what is happening around them

• are open and often talkative

• compare their own opinions with the opinions of others

• like action and initiative

• easily make new friends or adapt to a new group

• say what they think

• are interested in new people

• easily break unwanted relations Introverts

• are interested in their own thoughts and feelings

• need to have own territory

• often appear reserved, quiet and thoughtful

• usually do not have many friends

• have difficulties in making new contacts

• like concentration and quiet

• do not like unexpected visits and therefore do not make them

• work well alone



Type A vs. Type B theory of personality

Yet another dimension of personality which is getting attention both from organizational as well as medical researchers is the Type A and Type B behavior profiles. Type A people are impatient and much aggressive to achieve more and more. Working fast, working for long hours are some of the specific behavioral outcomes. Type B is much easier going, relaxed about time pressure, less competitive and more philosophical in nature.

Type A individuals can be described as impatient, time-conscious, controlling, concerned about their status, highly competitive, ambitious, business-like, aggressive, having difficulty relaxing; and are sometimes disliked by individuals with Type B personalities for the way that they're always rushing]. They are often high-achieving workaholics who multi-task, drive themselves with deadlines, and are unhappy about delays. Because of these characteristics, Type A individuals are often described as "stress junkies."[] Many business and political leaders have Type A personalities.



Type B individuals, in contrast, are described as patient, relaxed, and easy-going, generally lacking an overriding sense of urgency. Because of these characteristics, Type B individuals are often described by Type As as apathetic and disengaged[]. There is also a Type AB mixed profile for people who cannot be clearly categorized.

In his 1996 book, Type A Behavior: Its Diagnosis and Treatment, Meyer Friedman suggests that Type A behavior is expressed in three major symptoms. One of these symptoms is believed to be covert and therefore less observable, whereas the other two are more overt.



figure: Characteristics of type A and B behavior patterns



Source: McShane and Glinow, P. 208

Criticisms of 'A' and 'B' Type theory

• Type A/B theory has been criticized on a number of grounds. For example, statisticians have argued that the original study by Friedman and Rosenman had serious limitations, including large and unequal sample sizes, and less than 1% of the variance in relationship explained by Type A personality.

• Psychometrically, the behaviors that define the syndrome are not highly correlated, indicating that this is a grouping of separate tendencies, not a coherent pattern or type. Type theoriesin general have been criticised as overly simplistic and incapable of assessing the degrees of difference in human personality.

• Researchers have also found that Type A behavior is not a good predictor of coronary heart disease.[2] According to research by Redford Williams of Duke University, the hostility component of Type A personality is the only significant risk factor.[3] Thus, it is a high level of expressed anger and hostility, not the other elements of Type A behavior, that constitute the problem.

• On the basis of these criticisms, Type A theory has been termed obsolete by many researchers in contemporary health psychology and personality psychology.



Strengths & limitations of Type theory of personality

• Type theory in general has been criticized as over-simplistic because it overlooks

the multi-dimensional and continuous nature of personality traits.

• Also, some would say that Individual Differences may be qualitative not quantitative. That is

that there may be a difference in the qualities that people possess rather than, as trait theory

would have us believe, we all possess certain traits it's just a case of how much or how little

we possess (the quantity).

• A key strength of the personality type approach, I think, is its simple applicability and person-centered relevance. It can be particularly useful to complete personality type profiles for helping improve how people get along in relationships and at work.



3. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Personality Development (Freudian view)

Freudian theory of personality and explanation of personality development

Freud didn't exactly invent the idea of the conscious versus unconscious mind, but he certainly was responsible for making it popular. The conscious mind is what you are aware of at any particular moment, your present perceptions, memories, thoughts, fantasies, feelings, what have you. Working closely with the conscious mind is what Freud called the preconscious, what we might today call "available memory:" anything that can easily be made conscious, the memories you are not at the moment thinking about but can readily bring to mind. Now no-one has a problem with these two layers of mind. But Freud suggested that these are the smallest parts!

The largest part by far is the unconscious. It includes all the things that are not easily available to awareness, including many things that have their origins there, such as our drives or instincts, and things that are put there because we can't bear to look at them, such as the memories and emotions associated with trauma.

According to Freud, the unconscious is the source of our motivations, whether they be simple desires for food or sex, neurotic compulsions, or the motives of an artist or scientist. And yet, we are often driven to deny or resist becoming conscious of these motives, and they are often available to us only in disguised form. We will come back to this.
The division of personality: The id, the ego, and the superego

Freudian psychological reality begins with the world, full of objects. Among them is a very special object, the organism. The organism is special in that it acts to survive and reproduce, and it is guided toward those ends by its needs -- hunger, thirst, the avoidance of pain, and sex.

A part -- a very important part -- of the organism is the nervous system, which has as one its characteristics a sensitivity to the organism's needs. At birth, that nervous system is little more than that of any other animal, an "it" or id. The nervous system, as id, translates the organism's needs into motivational forces called, in German, Triebe, which has been translated as instincts or drives. Freud also called them wishes. This translation from need to wish is called the primary process.

The id works in keeping with the pleasure principle, which can be understood as a demand to take care of needs immediately. Just picture the hungry infant, screaming itself blue. It doesn't "know" what it wants in any adult sense; it just knows that it wants it and it wants it now. The infant, in the Freudian view, is pure, or nearly pure id. And the id is nothing if not the psychic representative of biology.

nfortunately, although a wish for food, such as the image of a juicy steak, might be enough to satisfy the id, it isn't enough to satisfy the organism. The need only gets stronger, and the wishes just keep coming. You may have noticed that, when you haven't satisfied some need, such as the need for food, it begins to demand more and more of your attention, until there comes a point where you can't think of anything else. This is the wish or drive breaking into consciousness.

Luckily for the organism, there is that small portion of the mind we discussed before, the conscious, that is hooked up to the world through the senses. Around this little bit of consciousness, during the first year of a child's life, some of the "it" becomes "I," some of the id becomes ego. The ego relates the organism to reality by means of its consciousness, and it searches for objects to satisfy the wishes that id creates to represent the organisms needs. This problem-solving activity is called the secondary process.

The ego, unlike the id, functions according to the reality principle, which says "take care of a need as soon as an appropriate object is found." It represents reality and, to a considerable extent, reason.

However, as the ego struggles to keep the id (and, ultimately, the organism) happy, it meets with obstacles in the world. It occasionally meets with objects that actually assist it in attaining its goals. And it keeps a record of these obstacles and aides. In particular, it keeps track of the rewards and punishments meted out by two of the most influential objects in the world of the child -- mom and dad. This record of things to avoid and strategies to take becomes the superego. It is not completed until about seven years of age. In some people, it never is completed.

There are two aspects to the superego: One is the conscience, which is an internalization of punishments and warnings. The other is called the ego ideal. It derives from rewards and positive models presented to the child. The conscience and ego ideal communicate their requirements to the ego with feelings like pride, shame, and guilt.

It is as if we acquired, in childhood, a new set of needs and accompanying wishes, this time of social rather than biological origins. Unfortunately, these new wishes can easily conflict with the ones from the id. You see, the superego represents society, and society often wants nothing better than to have you never satisfy your needs at all!

he psychosexual stages and development of personality

For Freud, the sex drive is the most important motivating force. In fact, Freud felt it was the primary motivating force not only for adults but for children and even infants. When he introduced his ideas about infantile sexuality to the Viennese public of his day, they were hardly prepared to talk about sexuality in adults, much less in infants!

It is true that the capacity for orgasm is there neurologically from birth. But Freud was not just talking about orgasm. Sexuality meant not only intercourse, but all pleasurable sensation from the skin. It is clear even to the most prudish among us that babies, children, and, of course, adults, enjoy tactile experiences such as caresses, kisses, and so on.

Freud noted that, at different times in our lives, different parts of our skin give us greatest pleasure. Later theorists would call these areas erogenous zones. It appeared to Freud that the infant found its greatest pleasure in sucking, especially at the breast. In fact, babies have a penchant for bringing nearly everything in their environment into contact with their mouths. A bit later in life, the child focuses on the anal pleasures of holding it in and letting go. By three or four, the child may have discovered the pleasure of touching or rubbing against his or her genitalia. Only later, in our sexual maturity, do we find our greatest pleasure in sexual intercourse. In these observations, Freud had the makings of a psychosexual stage theory.

The oral stage lasts from birth to about 18 months. The focus of pleasure is, of course, the mouth. Sucking and biting are favorite activities.

The anal stage lasts from about 18 months to three or four years old. The focus of pleasure is the anus. Holding it in and letting it go are greatly enjoyed.

The phallic stage lasts from three or four to five, six, or seven years old. The focus of pleasure is the genitalia. Masturbation is common.

The latent stage lasts from five, six, or seven to puberty, that is, somewhere around 12 years old. During this stage, Freud believed that the sexual impulse was suppressed in the service of learning. I must note that, while most children seem to be fairly calm, sexually, during their grammar school years, perhaps up to a quarter of them are quite busy masturbating and playing "doctor." In Freud's repressive era, these children were, at least, quieter than their modern counterparts.

The genital stage begins at puberty, and represents the resurgence of the sex drive in adolescence, and the more specific focusing of pleasure in sexual intercourse. Freud felt that masturbation, oral sex, homosexuality, and many other things we find acceptable in adulthood today, were immature.

This is a true stage theory, meaning that Freudians believe that we all go through these stages, in this order, and pretty close to these ages.

The Oedipal crisis

Each stage has certain difficult tasks associated with it where problems are more likely to arise. For the oral stage, this is weaning. For the anal stage, it's potty training. For the phallic stage, it is the Oedipal crisis, named after the ancient Greek story of king Oedipus, who inadvertently killed his father and married his mother.



Here's how the Oedipal crisis works: The first love-object for all of us is our mother. We want her attention, we want her affection, we want her caresses, we want her, in a broadly sexual way. The young boy, however, has a rival for his mother's charms: his father! His father is bigger, stronger, smarter, and he gets to sleep with mother, while junior pines away in his lonely little bed. Dad is the enemy.



About the time the little boy recognizes this archetypal situation, he has become aware of some of the more subtle differences between boys and girls, the ones other than hair length and clothing styles. From his naive perspective, the difference is that he has a penis, and girls do not. At this point in life, it seems to the child that having something is infinitely better than not having something, and so he is pleased with this state of affairs.



But the question arises: where is the girl's penis? Perhaps she has lost it somehow. Perhaps it was cut off. Perhaps this could happen to him! This is the beginning of castration anxiety, a slight misnomer for the fear of losing one's penis.



To return to the story, the boy, recognizing his father's superiority and fearing for his penis, engages some of his ego defenses: He displaces his sexual impulses from his mother to girls and, later, women; And he identifies with the aggressor, dad, and attempts to become more and more like him, that is to say, a man. After a few years of latency, he enters adolescence and the world of mature heterosexuality.



The girl also begins her life in love with her mother, so we have the problem of getting her to switch her affections to her father before the Oedipal process can take place. Freud accomplishes this with the idea of penis envy: The young girl, too, has noticed the difference between boys and girls and feels that she, somehow, doesn't measure up. She would like to have one, too, and all the power associated with it. At very least, she would like a penis substitute, such as a baby. As every child knows, you need a father as well as a mother to have a baby, so the young girl sets her sights on dad.



Dad, of course, is already taken. The young girl displaces from him to boys and men, and identifies with mom, the woman who got the man she really wanted. Note that one thing is missing here: The girl does not suffer from the powerful motivation of castration anxiety, since she cannot lose what she doesn't have. Freud felt that the lack of this great fear accounts for fact (as he saw it) that women were both less firmly heterosexual than men and somewhat less morally-inclined.



Before you get too upset by this less-than-flattering account of women's sexuality, rest assured that many people have responded to it. I will discuss it in the discussion section.



Character

Your experiences as you grow up contribute to your personality, or character, as an adult. Freud felt that traumatic experiences had an especially strong effect. Of course, each specific trauma would have its own unique impact on a person, which can only be explored and understood on an individual basis. But traumas associated with stage development, since we all have to go through them, should have more consistency.



If you have difficulties in any of the tasks associated with the stages -- weaning, potty training, or finding your sexual identity -- you will tend to retain certain infantile or childish habits. This is called fixation. Fixation gives each problem at each stage a long-term effect in terms of our personality or character.



If you, in the first eight months of your life, are often frustrated in your need to suckle, perhaps because mother is uncomfortable or even rough with you, or tries to wean you too early, then you may develop an oral-passive character. An oral-passive personality tends to be rather dependent on others. They often retain an interest in "oral gratifications" such as eating, drinking, and smoking. It is as if they were seeking the pleasures they missed in infancy.



When we are between five and eight months old, we begin teething. One satisfying thing to do when you are teething is to bite on something, like mommy's nipple. If this causes a great deal of upset and precipitates an early weaning, you may develop an oral-aggressive personality. These people retain a life-long desire to bite on things, such as pencils, gum, and other people. They have a tendency to be verbally aggressive, argumentative, sarcastic, and so on.



In the anal stage, we are fascinated with our "bodily functions." At first, we can go whenever and wherever we like. Then, out of the blue and for no reason you can understand, the powers that be want you to do it only at certain times and in certain places. And parents seem to actually value the end product of all this effort!



Some parents put themselves at the child's mercy in the process of toilet training. They beg, they cajole, they show great joy when you do it right, they act as though their hearts were broken when you don't. The child is the king of the house, and knows it. This child will grow up to be an anal expulsive (a.k.a. anal aggressive) personality. These people tend to be sloppy, disorganized, generous to a fault. They may be cruel, destructive, and given to vandalism and graffiti. The Oscar Madison character in The Odd Couple is a nice example.



Other parents are strict. They may be competing with their neighbors and relatives as to who can potty train their child first (early potty training being associated in many people's minds with great intelligence). They may use punishment or humiliation. This child will likely become constipated as he or she tries desperately to hold it in at all times, and will grow up to be an anal retentive personality. He or she will tend to be especially clean, perfectionistic, dictatorial, very stubborn, and stingy. In other words, the anal retentive is tight in all ways. The Felix Unger character in The Odd Couple is a perfect example.



There are also two phallic personalities, although no-one has given them names. If the boy is harshly rejected by his mother, and rather threatened by his very masculine father, he is likely to have a poor sense of self-worth when it comes to his sexuality. He may deal with this by either withdrawing from heterosexual interaction, perhaps becoming a book-worm, or by putting on a rather macho act and playing the ladies' man. A girl rejected by her father and threatened by her very feminine mother is also likely to feel poorly about herself, and may become a wall-flower or a hyper-feminine "belle."



But if a boy is not rejected by his mother, but rather favored over his weak, milquetoast father, he may develop quite an opinion of himself (which may suffer greatly when he gets into the real world, where nobody loves him like his mother did), and may appear rather effeminate. After all, he has no cause to identify with his father. Likewise, if a girl is daddy's little princess and best buddy, and mommy has been relegated to a sort of servant role, then she may become quite vain and self-centered, or possibly rather masculine.



These various phallic characters demonstrate an important point in Freudian characterology: Extremes lead to extremes. If you are frustrated in some way or overindulged in some way, you have problems. And, although each problem tends to lead to certain characteristics, these characteristics can also easily be reversed. So an anal retentive person may suddenly become exceedingly generous, or may have some part of their life where they are terribly messy. This is frustrating to scientists, but it may reflect the reality of personality!



MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY

Everyday life requires assessment of personality. In business and industry it is important to know certain aspects of employee’s personality. Likewise, armed services, educational institution, clinical and other setting require the knowledge of personality and abilities of the person. Personality test is also important to conduct researches. Test serves both theoretical and practical need.

Measures of personality are used to make important decisions, such as whether a person is suited for a certain type of work, for a particular class in school, or for a drug to reduce agitation. Personality measures are scientific, if not more interesting. They involve using a sample of behavior, usually in the form of the self-report, to predict future behavior. Some measures are behavior rating scales that assess overt behavior in settings like the classroom or mental hospital.

Since important decisions are made on the basis of personality measures, they must be reliable and valid. The reliability of a measure is its consistency. A measure of height would not be reliable if a person appeared taller or shorter every time a measurement was taken. A reliable personality measure, like a good tape measure, must yield similar results on different testing occasions.

The validity of a test is the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. In order to determine whether a test is valid, we see whether it actually predicts an outside standard or criterion. Tests of musical aptitude, for example, should predict whether a person can learn to play a musical instrument.

Similarly, test should be standardized in order to be applicable to different types of population. Most of the popular objective tests are standardized tests.



TYPE OF ASSESSMENT

McClelland (1951) He states that there are four ways to collect the information related to personality

Direct observation, photographs, tape record, to identify and analyse behavior. An S-R theorist emphasizes this approach.

Impression left in the environment – poems, diary, painting, music – that can tell about the motivation. Psychoanalysts emphasized this approach.

Asking directly to the person why the behavior exhibited, why certain things created, how s/he knew, what feeling, wishes came into his/her mind. Trait theorists and psychoanalysts use this approach.

How other think, observe also important for the identification of the personality. Information from the teachers, guardians, neighbors, is important source to identify the personality. S-R theorists collect this type of information.

Spencer A. Rathus (1984) states that there are broadly two types of personality tests.

• Objective tests of personality

• Subjective tests of personality

Laura Uba and Karen Huang (1999) state that personality tests can be group as follow:

• Self report test (consciously describing ourselves)

• Projective rest (Unconsciously revealing ourselves)

• Observation and interviews (identifying personality cues)

Most psychologists agree that personality tests can be group into three categories -

• Self reporting techniques

• Projective techniques

• Behavioral studies (observation/situational test)



OBJECTIVE TEST OF PERSONALITY

Psychologists frequently use questionnaires to assess personality. The most commonly used questionnaires are self-report tests, which rely on people’s conscious of their own customary behaviors, attitudes, and feelings. There are series of statement of behavior, attitudes, feelings etc. There are choices in answer (yes/no, true false, five point scale, etc.) of different situation of behavior. Questionnaire or paper pencil tests are also called objective tests because can be scored without special training.

Personality inventories (questionnaire)

Also called paper pencil test – The most convenient kind of measure to use for almost any psychological purpose is a pencil and paper test in the form of a questionnaire or inventory. Such tests can be given cheaply and quickly to large groups of people and consequently psychologists have constructed a wide variety of them, usually questionnaires which ask questions or give simple statements to be marked yes or no, true or false. Some popular personality inventories include:

1. Sixteen Personality Factors (16 PF):

Personality traits and scales used to measure traits are numerous and commonality amongst the traits and scales is often difficult to obtain. To curb the confusion, many personality psychologists have attempted to develop a common taxonomy. A notable attempt at developing a common taxonomy is Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factor Model based upon personality adjectives taken form the natural language. Although Cattell contributed much to the use of factor analysis in his pursuit of a common trait language his theory has not been successfully replicated.

Through factor analysis, Cattell identified what he referred to as surface and source traits. Surface traits represent clusters of correlated variables and source traits represent the underlying structure of the personality. Cattell considered source traits much more important in understanding personality than surface traits (Hall& Lindzey, 1978). The identified source traits became the primary basis for the 16 PF Model.

The 16 Personality Factor Model aims to measure personality based upon sixteen source traits. Table summarizes the surface traits as descriptors in relation to source traits within a high and low range.

Descriptors of Low Range Primary Factor Descriptors of High Range

Reserve, impersonal, distant, cool, reserved, impersonal, detached, formal, aloof (Sizothymia) Warmth Warm, outgoing, attentive to others, kindly, easy going, participating, likes people (Affectothymia)

Concrete thinking, lower general mental capacity, less intelligent, unable to handle abstract problems (Lower Scholastic Mental Capacity) Reasoning Abstract-thinking, more intelligent, bright, higher general mental capacity, fast learner (Higher Scholastic Mental Capacity)

Reactive emotionally, changeable, affected by feelings, emotionally less stable, easily upset (Lower Ego Strength) Emotional Stability Emotionally stable, adaptive, mature, faces reality calm (Higher Ego Strength)

Deferential, cooperative, avoids conflict, submissive, humble, obedient, easily led, docile, accommodating (Submissiveness) Dominance Dominant, forceful, assertive, aggressive, competitive, stubborn, bossy (Dominance)

Serious, restrained, prudent, taciturn, introspective, silent (Desurgency) Liveliness Lively, animated, spontaneous, enthusiastic, happy go lucky, cheerful, expressive, impulsive (Surgency)

Expedient, nonconforming, disregards rules, self indulgent (Low Super Ego Strength) Rule-Consciousness Rule-conscious, dutiful, conscientious, conforming, moralistic, staid, rule bound (High Super Ego Strength)

Shy, threat-sensitive, timid, hesitant, intimidated (Threctia) Social Boldness Socially bold, venturesome, thick skinned, uninhibited (Parmia)

Utilitarian, objective, unsentimental, tough minded, self-reliant, no-nonsense, rough (Harria) Sensitivity Sensitive, aesthetic, sentimental, tender minded, intuitive, refined (Premsia)

Trusting, unsuspecting, accepting, unconditional, easy (Alaxia) Vigilance Vigilant, suspicious, skeptical, distrustful, oppositional (Protension)

Grounded, practical, prosaic, solution orientated, steady, conventional (Praxernia) Abstractedness Abstract, imaginative, absent minded, impractical, absorbed in ideas (Autia)

Forthright, genuine, artless, open, guileless, naive, unpretentious, involved (Artlessness) Privateness Private, discreet, nondisclosing, shrewd, polished, worldly, astute, diplomatic (Shrewdness)

Self-Assured, unworried, complacent, secure, free of guilt, confident, self satisfied (Untroubled) Apprehension Apprehensive, self doubting, worried, guilt prone, insecure, worrying, self blaming (Guilt Proneness)

Traditional, attached to familiar, conservative, respecting traditional ideas (Conservatism) Openness to Change Open to change, experimental, liberal, analytical, critical, free thinking, flexibility (Radicalism)

Group-oriented, affiliative, a joiner and follower dependent (Group Adherence) Self-Reliance Self-reliant, solitary, resourceful, individualistic, self sufficient (Self-Sufficiency)

Tolerated disorder, unexacting, flexible, undisciplined, lax, self-conflict, impulsive, careless of social rues, uncontrolled (Low Integration) Perfectionism Perfectionistic, organized, compulsive, self-disciplined, socially precise, exacting will power, control, self –sentimental (High Self-Concept Control)

Relaxed, placid, tranquil, torpid, patient, composed low drive (Low Ergic Tension) Tension Tense, high energy, impatient, driven, frustrated, over wrought, time driven. (High Ergic Tension)

Table: Primary factors and Description in Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Model Adapted from Conn & Rieke, 1994)

Evaluation of the 16 Personality Factor

Although Cattell contributed much to personality research through the use of factor analysis his theory is greatly criticized. The most apparent criticism of Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Model is the fact that despite many attempts his theory has never been entirely replicated.

Howarth and Brown concluded, “that the 16 PF does not measure the factors which it purports to measure at a primary level (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1987) Studies conducted by Sell et al. (1970) and by Eysenck and Eysenck (1969) also failed to verify the 16 Personality Factor Model's primary level (Noller, Law, Comrey, 1987).

Despite all the criticism of Cattell's hypothesis, his empirical findings lead the way for investigation and later discovery of the 'Big Five' dimensions of personality. Fiske (1949) and Tupes and Christal (1961) simplified Cattell's variables to five recurrent factors known as extraversion or surgency, agreeableness, consciousness, emotional stability and intellect or openness (Pervin & John, 1999).

However, through investigation into to the validity of Cattell's model researchers did discover the Big Five Factors, which have been monumental in understanding personality, as we know it today.

Advantages/Disadvantages of personality inventories (questionnaire)

• It is cheap and simple and can be applied to many people in a single time

• It is convenient, objective, and assists in research to measure traits, behavour, cognition, etc.

• Also can be used in correlational studies

• Often less valid

• Norms are not usually fit to non-European

• Does not provide sufficient frame of reference (assertive – compare to whom, in what situation)

• Does not know whether respondents are answering correctly. Respondents may like to project themselves as good test taker

Projective Tests

Projection is said to be evident whenever we attribute our own motives to others, or even to inanimate objects. Projective tests are so named because they induce the individual to project – to put him/herself into the test situation, or to identify with the persons therein and, by telling about them, to reveal his/her own motives, attitudes, apprehensions and aspirations.

Projective test is a psychological test that presents questions to which there is no single correct response. A test that presents ambiguous stimuli into which the test-taker projects his/her own personality in making a response. There are many projective tests – sentence completion, doll play, perception of inkblots, interpretation of pictures, and so forth. Despite their apparent differences, all such tests have two features in common:

Projective test presents the person with a relatively non-structured situation. That is to say, they involve a situation, which, instead of calling for a stereotyped and predictable reaction from one person to another, may elicit many different reactions, depending upon the individual being tested.

The commonness of projective tests is that they catch the subject off guard. They are designed to entice the subject into revealing him/herself without his/her being aware of the fact that s/he is doing so. People tell more about themselves and their belief, attitude, unconscious wishes, fear, hopes and relationship with others while looking at the ambiguous stimulus. There is less conscious resistance while responding the stimulus because stimulus does not look threatening.

Rorschach Inkblot Test (RT)

The Rorschach technique is named for its developer, Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1884-1922). Rorschach, whose primary interest was in the psychoanalytic work of Carl Jung, began experimenting with inkblots as early as 1911 as a means of assessing introversion and extroversion.

The Rorschach (1921) inkblot is administered using 10 cards, each containing a complicated inkblot pattern, five in black and gray, five uses a variety of colors. Subjects look at the cards one at a time and describe what each inkblot resembles. They are instructed to look at the shape, shading, and color of the inkblots. They can give no, one, or several responses to each card. They can hold the card upside down or sideways. After the subject has viewed all 10 cards, the examiner usually goes back over the responses for additional information. The subject may be asked to clarify some responses or to describe which features of each inkblot encouraged the responses. Actually, there is no one correct response to any inkblot card, although there are certain common responses to some cards.

Figure: A Rorschach Ink Blot

Responses are scored according to the location, determinants, content, and form level.

Location: Which parts of the inkblot were singled out or emphasized in the subject's responses. The subject can give the response to the whole blot (W), a large detail (D), a small detail (d), and white spaces within the main outlines (s). For example, taking the whole part of the blot is said to integrative, intelligent mature.

Determinants: Indicates the manner of perception i.e., the particular characteristics which have helped the subject in determining the blot of deciding his manner of perception. The main determents are:

form of the blot (F) color (C) movement (M)

shading (S) texture (T)



Dominance of shading responses expresses anxiety, depressed attitudes and feeling of inferiority and relatively more emphasis on movement indicates richness of one’s imaginative.

Content: It simply takes what is seen by the subject and not the manner of the perception. For instance, subject can see human forms (H), animal forms (A) animal detail (Ad) or human detail (Hd) rivers, mountain, green fields etc (N), objects like lampshade, pot etc (O).

Originality: For each cards certain responses are scored as popular by symbol because of their common occurrence by symbol (P) with some others in which something new is given and they indicate some type of originality in them are scored as original by symbol (O).

A response that reflects the shape of the blot is a sign of adequate reality testing. A response that richly integrates several features of the blot is a sign of high intellectual functioning. The Rorschach is thought to provide insight into a person's’ intelligence, interests, cultural background, degree of introversion or extraversion, level of anxiety, fears, hopes, repressed wishes, reality testing, and a host of other variables.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a method of revealing some of the dominant drives, emotions, sentiments, complexes and conflicts of a personality. Special value resides in its power to expose the underlying inhibited tendencies which the subject (or inquirer) is not willing to admit, or can not admit because he is unconscious of them.



Thematic Apperception Test Consists of a series of 20 pictures; each one is ambiguous enough to permit a variety of interpretations

The TAT test itself consists of 30 cards, each showing an ambiguous black and white picture of a situation or event. Individuals are asked to make up stories for the pictures. There is also a blank card for which individuals are asked to create their own scene, about which they are then asked to tell a story. Designated sets of 20 pictures are administered to men and women; two other sets are administers to boys and girls. Murray recommended that the TAT be administered in two 1-hour sessions, consisting of 10 cards each. Today, clinical psychologists typically use 10 cards or less during a single session. Story themes can reveal information about one's relationships with lovers, friends, parents, and authority figures. Insight can be gained regarding an individual's life view, including self-concept and characteristic coping styles in facing emotional conflict.

In the early 1930s, Henry A. Murray, at Harvard University, became fascinated with the potential of storytelling for delving into the human psyche to better understand psychodynamics and behavior. Murray had trained as a surgeon, earned a PhD in biochemistry, immersed himself in the arts, and studied psychology independently. He interpreted the discoveries of Sigmund Freud and his own mentor Carl Jung as supporting the conviction that in the human being imagination is more fundamental than perception. Consequently, Murray devoted himself to furthering the investigation of dreams, fantasies, creative production and projection—all of which are primarily emotional and dramatic, such stuff as myths are made of. After much experimentation with evocative images, Murray, along with Christiana Morgan, Samuel Thal, and other clinic staff, fashioned the now classic Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) which first appeared in publication in 1935.

The TAT is found useful in any comprehensive study of personality and in the interpretation of behavior disorders, psychosomatic illnesses, neuroses, and psychoses; or, can lead to a greater understanding and awareness of an individual of themselves. The technique is especially recommended as a preface to a series of psychotherapeutic interviews or to a short psychoanalysis. Since the TAT and the Rorschach ink-blot test yield complementary information, the combination of these two tests is peculiarly effective. Unlike the Rorschach, which is used to infer personality dynamics from perception, the TAT is used to infer personality dynamics from apperception. The Rorschach inferred psychodynamics from how the person saw the world whereas the TAT inferred psychodynamics from how the personal understood and made meaningful people's motives, intentions, and expectations, in social situations.